Canine ResearchBarriers to the adoption of humane dog training methods
Introduction
Despite many studies recommending the use of reward-based training methods for pet dogs, including a recent review (Ziv, 2017), many owners continue to use positive punishment and negative reinforcement. Behavior problems are the leading cause of death of dogs under 3 years old (American Veterinary Society for Animal Behavior [AVSAB], 2008a), and an owner's perception of a dog as being “well-behaved” is correlated with the dog's lifespan (Dreschel, 2010). Therefore, research into how best to increase dog owners' and trainers' use of appropriate methods is urgently needed. The continued use of training methods that carry risks (such as fear and aggression) and that may negatively affect the relationship between dog and owner may be one cause of canine behavior problems and certainly is not the best way to resolve them. However, some people (including some dog trainers and celebrities) have negative attitudes toward humane training methods and continue to use and promote aversive techniques. Increasing the adoption of humane training methods involves not just teaching people how to use them but also changing attitudes toward dog training so that people are willing to learn and use reward-based methods. This study is an overview of the barriers to the adoption of humane dog training methods, summarizes the challenges in promoting humane methods, and suggests future directions for research.
For the purposes of this review, humane training refers to the use of positive reinforcement and negative punishment in training, along with management strategies that are not aversive. This is also known as reward-based training and is the same approach taken by a number of professional bodies (but not all; see below). Humane management strategies include but are not limited to the use of no-pull harnesses, putting lids on garbage cans, use of pet gates to keep dogs separate from children or other animals, and the use of a muzzle with appropriate prior conditioning using only nonpunitive, nonscary techniques.
The definition of reward-based methods based on positive reinforcement and negative punishment, and aversive methods based on positive punishment and negative reinforcement, is fairly standard (e.g., Greenebaum, 2010), and many studies of dog training separate the methods used along these lines (Casey et al., 2014, Arhant et al., 2010). However, there are minor variations in how methods have been classified in the literature. These differences may reflect the difficulties of classifying language used by ordinary people to describe the methods they use, a focus on positive reinforcement versus positive punishment with less attention paid to negative reinforcement and negative punishment, and/or the use of statistical techniques rather than theory for analytic purposes. Outside the scientific literature, popular dog training books do not always include clear definitions (Browne et al., 2017) and the general public typically does not study learning theory. Hence, although the words “humane” and “reward-based” are widely used to describe dog training methods, they are not always well defined.
The literature on dog training methods is relatively small compared to that on parenting strategies. Research shows a strong link between corporal punishment of children and the risks of negative outcomes such as behavior problems (Durrant and Ensom, 2012), and there is a growing body of literature on the best ways to teach evidence-based parenting strategies. Attitudes toward corporal punishment of children are known to predict the use of corporal punishment (Taylor et al., 2011), so it seems reasonable to assume that attitudes toward the use of aversive techniques in dog training also predict the use of such techniques. Therefore, where appropriate, the study will also draw on the literature on evidence-based parenting programs and on corporal punishment of children.
Humane training methods are an important aspect of animal welfare for pet dogs. Since the 1960s, animal welfare has been framed in terms of the Five Freedoms. These freedoms include the freedom from fear and distress and the freedom to express normal behaviors. The more recent development of the Five Domains model also includes opportunities to experience positive welfare (Mellor, 2016). These approaches to animal welfare are relevant to discussions of dog training in several ways: aversive techniques have the potential to cause fear and/or stress (Ziv, 2017); behavior problems in and of themselves may be due to fear and stress which aversive methods do not resolve; and some behavior problems may be due to lack of an allowed outlet for normal behavior. For example, fear of strangers or fear of body handling may cause a dog to hide or be aggressive, while chewing problem and digging behaviors may be due to lack of permissible outlets for these behaviors, such as a failure to provide chew toys. Training using positive reinforcement is linked to increased play behaviors (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). There is evidence that dogs like to work to earn a reward—dubbed the “Eureka effect” (McGowan et al., 2014). This means positive reinforcement training may contribute to positive welfare as an enrichment activity for dogs, while aversive techniques are associated with risks to welfare.
Section snippets
Dog training methods and animal welfare
The proportion of people using only reward-based dog training methods is not known, but according to surveys in the UK, it varies from 16% (Blackwell et al., 2008) to 20% (Hiby et al., 2004), but all participants in Rooney and Cowan (2011) used a combination of rewards and punishment. In Arhant et al.'s (2010) study of Viennese dog owners, although 90% used rewards often or very often, 80% also used positive punishment (typically leash jerks, scolding, or holding the dog's muzzle). Many dog
Dog trainers, terminology, and lack of regulation
Several different terms are used by dog trainers to describe humane training methods, including humane training itself, force-free training, positive reinforcement training, and reward-based training. Some dog training schools, such as the Academy for Dog Trainers and the Karen Pryor Academy, include a commitment to humane dog training methods. Because dog training is not regulated, some trainers may use terms such as “humane” and “force free” in ways that are incompatible with standard
The legal situation
The legality or otherwise of some dog training tools may also affect people's beliefs and perceived norms. Austria, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Quebec, Wales, and Scotland outlaw electronic shock collars and electronic barrier fences. In locations where such tools are legal, it can be assumed this will contribute to normative beliefs that these methods are acceptable.
When Sweden banned corporal punishment for children in 1979, while 53% of people supported it in
Positions of professional bodies
Some professional organizations forbid their members to use aversives in training, while others allow members to use aversive techniques or to use them in certain circumstances. There are also variations in how this information is presented to the public, who might be using their web site to find a dog trainer.
Those that ban members from using aversive methods include Association of Pet Dog Trainers (APDT) UK and the Pet Professional Guild. The APDT UK's mission statement (APDT UK 2017) lists
The role of veterinarians
Veterinarians play an important role in teaching people about animal behavior and referring people to dog trainers and behaviorists, although they sometimes miss opportunities to discuss behavior with clients (Roshier and McBride, 2012). Many American Veterinary Medical Association Council on Education–accredited veterinary schools do not offer a formal course in animal behavior (Shivley et al., 2016). Better education on behavior will enable vets to better guide their clients toward
Dog owners' knowledge, skills, and techniques
People's control over their behavior is linked to perceived control and also to their skills. In the case of dog training, people's skills in terms of timing of rewards, body position, and getting the dog's attention have been linked to success in teaching the dog “lie down” (Payne et al., 2017). For example, people may intend to use food rewards to teach a dog a particular command, but if their timing is not good enough, they may positively reinforce a different behavior (such as standing up).
Toward an understanding of dog owners' attitudes and use of dog training methods
One way to understand the way attitudes and beliefs affect behavior when it comes to the use of dog training methods is through the reasoned action approach (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). The reasoned action approach and the earlier theory of planned behavior have been widely used in social psychology and health promotion to explain and predict behavior change in areas such as physical activity, diet, and safer sex (Armitage and Conner, 2001, Webb et al., 2010, McEachan et al., 2011, McEachan
Summary and conclusions
Many dog owners continue to use aversive methods to train their dogs at least some of the time, despite the associated welfare risks. Aversive methods may cause fear, anxiety, and stress in themselves; do not address any underlying fear issues; may cause the dog to associate the aversive event with something other than what is intended (e.g., with the owner, thus affecting the dog-owner relationship); and likely mean that dogs are missing out on enrichment opportunities from reward-based dog
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Dr. Karen Overall and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this study.
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