Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research

Improving welfare by quantifying function

Karen L. Overall — 2012-01-01

New Year’s greetings! This year the Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research will experience some exciting changes. We are expanding the number of pages per issue to meet the demand of the large number of papers now being submitted. We are also striving to get advance issues available online to subscribers. These changes are driven by the extremely gratifying increased interest in the field.

Development of a novel paradigm for the measurement of olfactory discrimination in dogs (Canis familiaris): A pilot study

Hannah E. Salvin, Christopher McGrath, Paul D. McGreevy, Michael J. Valenzuela — 2012-01-01

Abstract: Olfactory dysfunction in older human beings has been shown to be associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline, yet age-related changes in olfactory behavior have received little attention in the dog model of human aging. We developed an odor habituation and fine odor discrimination paradigm to test the hypothesis that dogs would show a novelty response toward unfamiliar urine from entire male conspecifics. We tested 26 odor detection dogs (14 females, 12 males) from the New South Wales police dog unit, ranging in age from 1 year 2 months to 11 years 10 months. First, dogs were familiarized with a master odor over 2 presentations. Second, we measured difference in investigation time of a master odor as compared with 5 odor mixtures using the following ratios of novel-to-master odor: 100:0, 80:20, 60:40, 40:60, and 20:80. Dogs habituated to the master odor after the first presentation (t(25) = 6.048, P < 0.001). After 2 dogs that failed to habituate were excluded, there was a nonsignificant trend (t(21) = −1.968, P = 0.062) for aged dogs (>8 years, N = 6) to show reduced habituation as compared with middle-aged dogs (5-8 years, N = 9) and with all dogs aged <8 years (N = 18, t(21) = −1.883, P = 0.072). Approximately half of the dogs tested (N = 11) failed to show a novelty response toward the 100:0, novel:master odor. The remaining dogs (N = 15) showed a significant novelty response toward this odor (mean difference = 1.89 seconds, confidence interval = 0.86-2.84). Investigation of the remaining odor mixtures was not significantly different from investigation of the master odor in all dogs. Further development of this paradigm is needed using naive pet dogs before it can be used as a reliable measure of fine odor discrimination. The current, weak trend for an age effect in habituation warrants further investigation in a larger cohort to determine if this effect becomes significant or if it is simply a manifestation of small sample size and low statistical power. It is recommended that future studies use dogs that have not been trained against or actively discouraged from investigating urine because previous learning may have had a significant effect on the outcomes of this study.

The effects of drug detection training on behavioral reactivity and blood neurotransmitter levels in drug detection dogs: A preliminary study

2012-01-01

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to analyze the effects of drug detection training on behavior and blood neurotransmitter levels in drug detection dogs so as to investigate some variables influencing dog reactivity and responsiveness to training. In all, 20 dogs were sampled out of the Guardia di Finanza canine population. All the subjects were born, reared, housed, and trained in the same facility and followed the same training sessions. Dogs’ behavioral reactivity was scored according to a standardized working dogs test to evaluate natural dog attitudes. Plasma samples were analyzed by the high-performance liquid chromatography method to evaluate adrenaline, noradrenaline, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, homovanillic acid (HVA), 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol acid (MHPG), 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA), and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) levels. 5-HT and 5-HIAA were also analyzed from platelets. The analysis was carried out considering training, breed, and sex as independent variables. From a behavioral point of view, significant differences were recorded before and after training in “sociability,” “playfulness,” “predatory instinct,” and “aggressiveness” scores. Lower levels of platelet 5-HT and 5-HIAA were found after training. Plasma L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine levels differed between sexes, with males showing higher concentrations. These results underline the importance of complete and objective evaluations protocols of the dogs before, during, and after drugs search training to determine effective and successful selection strategies and training procedures.

Effects of prescription diet on dealing with stressful situations and performance of anxiety-related behaviors in privately owned anxious dogs

Maki Kato, Kazuki Miyaji, Nobuyo Ohtani, Mitsuaki Ohta — 2012-01-01

Abstract: The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of a diet (CALM CANINE) supplemented with alpha-casozepine and L-tryptophan on the stress response of anxious dogs with a focus on anxiety-related behavioral parameters and physiological parameters. Forty-four privately owned dogs were first fed with the control diet, followed by the study diet, each for an 8-week period, with a transitional period of 1 week between the diets. After 7 weeks on a particular diet, owners reported their dogs' behavior by filling out a questionnaire. Using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire, the effect of the study diet was found to be significant for 4 anxiety-related behavioral parameters, possibly mirroring a placebo effect. After 7 weeks on each diet, the urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio (UCCR) was measured to assess the stress response to a visit to a veterinary practice for toenail clipping. UCCR was measured to complement the interpretation of behavioral data with regard to the stress susceptibility of the dogs. A positive correlation was found between baseline UCCR, as measured in the home situations, and poststressor UCCR. The stressor-induced increase was significantly lower in the dogs when they were fed the study diet than earlier when they were fed the control diet. The supplementation of casozepine or the proportion of protein in a given diet could have been a determining factor. The study diet seems to improve the ability of an individual to cope with stress and may reduce anxiety-related behavior in anxious dogs.

Effects of early experience on food acceptance in a colony of adult research cats: A preliminary study

Beth A. Hamper, Barton Rohrbach, Claudia A. Kirk, Angela Lusby, Joe Bartges — 2012-01-01

Abstract: Acceptance of feline commercial canned and raw-type moist foods was evaluated in 18 adult cats with and without dietary pre-exposure to the same moist foods in the postweaning period. We hypothesized that cats pre-exposed to moist foods would readily accept canned or raw foods on re-exposure as adults, despite consuming a commercial expanded dry food for a period of 7-23 months. A total of 13 cats were fed 1 of 3 moist foods (commercial canned, commercial raw, or homemade raw foods) exclusively between 9 and 20 weeks of age (exposed), and 5 adult cats were offered only dry food during the postweaning period (unexposed). All 18 cats were offered 1 of 3 moist foods as adults. The relative risk, confidence intervals, and P values were determined for weight maintenance and food intake between the exposed and nonexposed cats when they were fed moist foods as adults. Moist food acceptance was generally poor when offered to adult cats accustomed to eating an expanded dry diet for >7 months. There was no difference (P = 0.61) in weight maintenance between those cats fed a moist food or expanded dry food as kittens and the later acceptance of a commercial canned or raw-type moist food as an adult. Similarly, adequacy of food intake measured as a proportion of estimated resting energy expenditure was not different between groups. The shorter the duration of dry food feeding, the greater was the likelihood of weight maintenance on reintroduction of moist foods. Kittens fed canned foods showed greater adaptability and acceptance of both raw and canned foods than those pre-exposed to either of the raw foods.In conclusion, prefeeding kittens a raw or canned food during the postweaning period between 9 and 20 weeks of age, followed by a period of dry foods for >7 months, did not increase later acceptance of the foods as an adult as compared with feeding expanded dry foods alone. Further studies with larger numbers of cats are needed to verify these observations and determine statistical significance.

Transport stress in horses: Effects of two different distances

2012-01-01

Abstract: This study compares the effects of 2 journeys of different lengths (50 km and 200 km) on horses. The first journey lasted about 1 hour, the second about 3 hours. Twelve Standardbred horses were used for the test. Blood samples were collected and analyzed (packed cells volume [PCV], cortisol, aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatinine, glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, total proteins, albumin, and alkaline phosphatase), and heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, and temperature were measured at 5 different experimental times: at rest, at loading, at unloading, and at 2 and 4 hours after return from the journey. Behavior was recorded by direct observation of loading and unloading, within the vehicle, and 2 and 4 hours after arrival in a new stall. The same parameters were recorded at the same times (excluding loading and unloading) in a control group of horses that had not travelled. All the data were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis (analysis of variance).Loading always caused an increase of HR and PCV. The different journey lengths produced significant increases in serum glucose, cortisol concentration, PCV, and HR. Serum cortisol concentrations after short transport were considerably higher than values registered at rest and after long transport. The long journey caused an increase of creatine kinase 2 hours after return. On arrival in the new stalls, the horses that had travelled sniffed less and snorted later than the control group. They ate immediately and more quickly, and those that had travelled 200 km also showed more interest in water than those that travelled for 50 km and the control group. The other behaviors, including exploratory, rest, and play activities, were concentrated in the second 2-hour observation period when the horses tended to feed less. The present trial showed that adaptation to a new stall could be facilitated by offering horses food and fresh water when they arrive, and that for horses that must make a 3-hour journey before a race, it would be better to arrive at their destination at least 4 hours before beginning physical activity.

The avoidance of ammonia by sheep

Clive J. Phillips, Matthew K. Pines, Tracy Muller — 2012-01-01

Abstract: The avoidance of ammonia by sheep was tested using operant conditioning techniques, training 12 sheep to operate a lever to open a door that would allow them to traverse a chamber with or without ammonia and obtain a food reward. One half of the sheep had been previously exposed to ammonia at 45 ppm in a simulated ship voyage, and the other half were kept in identical conditions but without ammonia. The maximum number of lever presses, or breakpoint, achieved when the chamber contained 45-ppm ammonia was compared with the number when the chamber contained no ammonia. There was a significantly lower mean breakpoint when the sheep traversed the chamber filled with ammonia (mean: 4.2 presses), compared with the chamber filled with fresh air (mean: 6.6 presses), demonstrating that sheep exhibited a moderate aversion to 45-ppm ammonia. Although the scale of the reduction in mean breakpoint was considerable, the aversion was only clearly demonstrated in 75% of the sheep, and there was no evidence that prior exposure influenced this aversion. It is therefore concluded that sheep show a moderate aversion to 45-ppm ammonia, with no evidence of sensitivity being affected by previous exposures.

A preliminary investigation of the use of a foal image to reduce mare stress during mare–foal separation

Chris W. Rogers, Victoria Walsh, Erica K. Gee, Elwyn C. Firth — 2012-01-01

Abstract: The data for this study were collected from 7 mares (10 ± 1.6 years old) when their foals were 4-, 15-, 30-, 45-, or 60-days-old. On each occasion, the foals were anesthetized and placed out of sight of the mare and the mares’ behavior, heart rate, and cortisol response to foal separation in either the presence of a foal phantom, a square shape, or no visual stimuli were measured. In the presence of the foal phantom, anxious (P = 0.119) and agitated (P = 0.524) mare behavior was not significantly different from baseline values. The mares had significantly elevated behavior scores for 5 out of 6 criteria when the square phantom was presented and were significantly more active (higher scores for fidgety and active criteria) when no visual stimuli (control) were provided. Based on the data presented in this study, the use of a phantom image of a foal with neutral ear and tail position may be an effective nonchemical method of calming mares during separation from their foal.

Olfactory detection of prostate cancer by dogs

Caroline Girardet, Jean-Nicolas Cornu, Olivier Cussenot — 2012-01-01

Volatiles organic compounds (VOCs) in urine have been proposed as cancer biomarkers. Our aim is to evaluate the efficacy of prostate cancer detection by trained dogs sniffing human urines samples.

EMPK® - novel training aids for explosives sniffer dogs

P. Kaul, C. Becher, G. Holl, S. Maurer, A. Sündermann, U. Dülsner — 2012-01-01

To date bulk amounts of commercially available energetic materials are used to train explosive sniffer dogs. The handling of these substances is strictly regulated due to legal reasons and their dangerous properties. The threat posed by extremely sensitive homemade explosives like TATP or HMTD made the development of safe training aids necessary. The use of bulk amounts of explosives can also cause uncontrollable contamination of the training area. A new type of training aid has been developed. The test bodies (EMPK® -Echtstoff Mikromengen Prüfkörper or Micro amount test devices) – entirely made of inorganic compounds - are mechanically impregnated with a small amount of real explosives. No solvents or other substances which might falsify the true odour of the explosive are used in this process. Many different types of compounds – solid, paste-like or liquid – can be incorporated. The EMPK® have been examined by German Institutes and are not considered to be explosives by law. They can therefore (within the EU) be sent by mail and stored in odourless glass containers instead of non-splintering cardboard or plastic containers. The training aids represent a strong local odour source. The rate of evaporation is reproducible and remains constant over a longer time period but is dependent on temperature and substance. This was proven by static μ-thermo-gravimetric measurements. Chromatographic measurements further indicate that softeners or residual monomers from plastics are not present in the gas phase. The explosive is only set free as vapour. Particles are not released.

Whole body CT, motion capture, and 3D computer animation findings in three working dogs with early onset lower back pain

2012-01-01

Lower back pain is a common cause of performance deficits in working dogs. Early detection and treatment are critical for minimizing irreversible nerve injury, compensatory gait abnormalities, increased strain on other joints, and loss of muscle mass. Conservative treatments such as physical therapy show promise for helping affected dogs, however more sensitive methods for localizing pain and measuring treatment response are needed so these new treatments can be validated. The purpose of this study was to describe findings from and the diagnostic utility of whole body CT, motion capture, and 3D computer animation for three, active duty police dogs with a clinical diagnosis of lower back pain. An experienced, board-certified, veterinary internist or veterinary surgeon determined the clinical diagnosis for all dogs. Whole-body CT scans for each dog were acquired using a 16-slice CT scanner and interpreted by a board-certified veterinary radiologist who was unaware of clinical findings. Digital motion capture data were acquired as handlers led the dogs through movements typically required for their working tasks. Motion capture data were analyzed using tracking software and interpreted by two gait analysis experts who were also unaware of clinical findings. Two image analysis experts created three-dimensional models of the dogs' skeletal structures from whole body CT data and converted the data to a format that could be linked to the motion capture data. A 3D computer animation expert combined CT and motion capture datasets to create 3D computer animation movie clips of the dogs' skeletal movements during working tasks that could be viewed from multiple angles. Results of the three new tests were presented to the internist and surgeon who performed initial clinical examinations, and they completed a questionnaire on the diagnostic utility of the tests. Clinicians indicated that the new tests identified significant lesions that were not suspected from their initial clinical assessments, were helpful for planning treatment, and showed promise as educational aids for primary care veterinarians, handlers and trainers.

Influence of high-fat/high-antioxidant nutritional supplementation before and during endurance exercise on physiological and biochemical responses in physically trained search and rescue dogs

D. Clero, D. Grandjean — 2012-01-01

We investigated the effects of a pre/per-exercise nutritional supplementation containing a high level of fat (medium and short chains fatty acids) and anti-oxidants (vitamins E, C and green tea polyphenols) on physiological and biochemical parameters, and on inflammatory and oxidative status of working dogs after exercise. Ten Belgian shepherds dogs, members of the Paris Fire Brigade K9 Search and Rescue Unit were randomly divided into two groups, in a cross-over designed protocol. They consumed 2g/kg body weight of the studied nutritional supplement or nothing, one hour before and in the middle of an endurance run test. After a fifteen day washout period, the trial was repeated by switching the two groups. Endurance test consisted of two times 20 minutes runs at a speed of 14km/h, separated by a passive rest of 5 minutes during which the supplement was provided to the concerned group. Physical parameters were measured before exercise (T0), at the end of the first 20 minutes run (T1), immediately after the end of the test (T2), and then at 10, 20, 30 minutes and 24 hours (T3) later. Blood samples were made at T0, T2 and T3. A smaller increase of the heart rate and a faster return to rest heart rate (10 min vs. 20 min) during and after exercise were observed in the supplemented group (SG) compared to control group (CG). Respiratory rate peak was lower in SG, and return to rest respiratory rate was faster (20 min vs. 30 min) in SG compared to CG. Thermal load tended to be lower after 20 minutes of run and at the end of the trial in SG compared to CG (39,2°C vs. 39,7°). After supplement ingestion, blood triglycerides were higher and decreased during exercise in SG. Advanced Oxidation Proteins Products (AOPP) were significantly higher at T2 in CG. No statistical difference was found for other oxidative stress related parameters. Interleukins IL1β and IL10 were statistically higher at T2 and T3 for CG. The results of this field study indicate that the tested nutritional supplementation lowers physiological modifications induced by this type of stamina in the dog. A slight decrease in the biological impact of exercise induced oxidative stress is observed through AOPP. Level of pro-inflammatory interleukins is higher post-exercise in the control group. Further experimentation is needed in order to better analyse the positive effect such nutritional supplementation versus exercise induced inflammation and their clinical consequences.

Temperament test in working dogs – how to measure and how to interpret

E. Wilsson — 2012-01-01

The test results for 380 German Shepherd Dogs, all bred at the Swedish Armed Forces kennel, were analysed. Behaviors were registered in two protocols; one objectively rating 25 responses (OBR) and one protocol subjectively rating 14 predefined traits (SRT). On basis of the results, two separate indexes were calculated, one for each protocol. Without being aware of this index the test leader selected dogs for training. 191 of the 380 dogs were taken out for training and 138 of these passed training, becoming working dogs, i.e., patrol dogs, search dogs or police dogs. Two dogs out of the 138 passing training had a negative index based on SRT while 16 had a negative index based on OBR. During the conditions these under which these dogs were tested – all dogs being tested by one experienced person – the results favor SRT before OBR. The most likely explanation is that an experience person can evaluate behavior more efficiently than can be expressed by coded behavior.

A new behavior and personality test to be used as a tool in dog breeding

Per Arvelius, Curt Blixt, Kenth Svartberg, Sophia Trenkle Nyberg — 2012-01-01

We are developing a cost-effective test that is constructed with two main targets. First, the measurements should give information about the dog's basic personality, and also be valid with respect to traits of interest to all dogs, e.g. “aggressiveness” and “fearfulness”. Second, test results should be usable for selection to accomplish genetic change. The new test, Assessment of Behavior in Canines (ABC), contains a battery of seven test situations. The dog's behavior is scored by an observer according to pre-defined scales, generating 200-250 measurements for each dog. In addition, the observer subjectively rates seven temperament traits. A prototype of the ABC was developed in 2009 and evaluated during 2010: Six trained observers scored a total of 207 dogs from five breeds at an average age of 19.5 months (sd = 4.9 mo). To analyse validity we used: behavioral observations in other situations, owners' descriptions of their dogs via two different questionnaires, and physiological measurements. Content validity was studied via expert assessments. To analyse test-retest reliability, 21 of the dogs were tested twice. Intra-rater reliability was analysed for 169 dogs - first time the dogs were observed live, second on video. For inter-rater reliability, dogs were judged by five observers simultaneously. The evaluation of the ABC using questionnaires, including the C-BARQ, and a test where the dog were exposed to everyday situations, showed that validity in general is good, i.e., the test seems to measure what it is meant to measure. In most cases, higher correlations to C-BARQ traits - several of them in the range 0.5-0.7 - were obtained for the ABC compared with other behavioral tests. Intra- and inter-rater reliabilities were high for most measurements. For the latter, the average Cronbach's alpha for all measurements within test situation varied between 0.87 and 0.96. Concerning intra-rater reliability, on average 77-93% of the scores within test situation were identical. Test-retest reliability was analysed with sufficient results for most measurements; the mean rank stability within test situation varied between 0.23 and 0.61. In conclusion, the results suggest that ABC possesses the qualities to function as intended, but also reveals a need for some changes. For example, in the test situation “Surface”, only 57% of the dogs showed any reaction at all, indicating that the stimulus used was too weak. The aim is that, after some minor adjustments during 2011, a final version of ABC will be official and used in 2012.

Creating a BLUP-index to select against fearfulness in rough collie

Per Arvelius, Katja Grandinson — 2012-01-01

Fear related problems are common in the Swedish Rough Collie population. In this study the pre-requisites for developing a BLUP-index for Collie temperament, based on the standardized temperament test Dog Mentality Assessment (DMA), was investigated. In previous studies, using factor analysis of the DMA variables, the broader behavioral traits sociability, curiosity/fearlessness, playfulness, chase-proneness and aggressiveness have been defined. Genetic analyses were based on the individual DMA variables, as well as on the five broader traits. Data was available from 2550 rough collies, and parameters were estimated using a linear animal model including fixed effects of sex, year and month of test, and random effects of litter, judge, test site, genetic effect of the individual and residual. Heritabilities ranged from 0.05-0.31, and generally the higher heritabilities were found for the broader behavioral traits. Validation of the DMA was made using the C-BARQ questionnaire, to which some “collie-specific” questions were added. Owners of rough collies aged from 6 mo to 10 years were targeted and the questionnaire generated information about 1766 dogs (a reply rate of 50%). Of these, 935 had information from the DMA. There were significant correlations between the broader personality traits measured in the DMA, and the everyday life behavior of the dogs as described by the owners in the questionnaire. For example, sociability in the DMA was positively correlated with stranger-directed interest, and negatively correlated with stranger-directed fear and non-social fear. Curiosity/fearlessness in the DMA was positively correlated with human-directed play interest, and negatively correlated with stranger-directed fear and non-social fear. Playfulness in the DMA was positively correlated with human-directed play interest. We conclude that selection for temperament in rough collie, based on data from the DMA, is possible and could reduce the frequency of fearful dogs in the breed. The next step will be to build the index by deciding in detail which measurements to include, and to create routines for recurring estimation of BLUP breeding values.

Editorial Board/Table of Contents

2012-01-01